第一語言詞彙發展的研究對第二語言詞彙學習有什麼樣的啟發?

第一語言詞彙發展的研究對第二語言詞彙學習會不少啟發:


一、詞彙知識是閱讀理解的基礎(Beck & McKeown, 1985) ,而且教學是可以同時對詞彙知識以及閱讀理解同時有效果的。在學術上的討論,所有關於詞彙的發展幾乎就是閱讀理解的發展(Stoller & Grabe, 1993)。

二、詞彙的發展也包括其它技能的發展,它可能是回想起意義、推論意義、理解文本、口頭溝通、正確拼字等等。這些技能都是很重要的,但是在考量這些技能之前,我們應該先考慮:學生的需求和動機、教學目標、需要學習的詞彙、需要學習的內容包含哪些字以及對於整個課程的重要性何在(Morgan & Rinvolucri, 2004) 。這不是單一個教學方法可以滿足這些不同的技能。

三、在一語的詞彙發展中,閱讀書寫的文章,這樣非刻意地學習是大多數詞彙發展的組成(Nagy & Herman, 1985)。因此,學習者不能只依靠老師課堂上的詞彙教學,老師應該鼓勵學習者閱讀以增進詞彙的學習。

四、為了使學習者可以在閱讀時學習新詞,老師應該使學習者具備獨立閱讀的能力。具體作法舉例如下:1、學習者應該有意識地讓詞語相關的詞彙可以產出;2、老師應該告訴學生如何和何時在脈絡下使用新詞(Dunmore, 1989);3、適時地使用字典。

五、和第一語言一樣,第二語言也需要多次的接觸(Meara, 1980)。有一些詞彙技巧可以有所幫助,例如語義地圖(semantic mapping)、詞彙聯想的腦內激盪(word association brainstorming),詞語格(word grids)(Harvey, 1983),或者找出在課堂外這些詞語被運用的情況。

六、只有學習者能將新的詞彙和舊有的知識連結在一塊的時候,學習才可能發生(Carr & Wixson, 1986; Nelson-Herber, 1986; Thelen, 1986) 。詞彙的選擇必須基課堂主題或理解所需(Anders & Bos, 1986; Nelson-Herber, 1986) 。語義地圖、語義特徵分析(semantic feature analysis)或關鍵字(key word)都是一些可以幫助記憶的方法。

七、組成一個人的詞彙是橫跨不同程度。它可以是知道形式、知道形式和意義的連結、知道使用等等;也可以是接受或產出的區分;還有一個能夠為了教學區分的就是知道其定義(definitional information)以及知道其在不同的脈絡下怎麼被使用(contextual information)(Stahl, 1983)。

八、在第一語言中,動機對於詞彙學習有很重要的影響,第二語言更是如此。第二語言學習者常常認為自己需要詞彙去表達自己,這就是動機。只要老師向學生說明詞彙和閱讀的關係,學生就會積極參與課堂上的詞彙教學以及非刻意學習的閱讀活動。beck把這個叫作詞語意識(word awarness)。

References

Anders, P. L. & Bos, C. S. (1986). Semantic Feature Analysis: An Interactive Strategy for Vocabulary Development and Text Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 610-616.
Beck, I. L. & McKeown, M. G. (1985). Teaching vocabulary: Making the instruction fit the goal. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 11-15.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A. & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.. Journal of educational psychology, 74(4), 506.
Carr, E. & Wixson, K. K. (1986). Guidelines for Evaluating Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 588-595.
Davis, F. B. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197.
Deighton, L. C. (1960). Developing vocabulary: Another look at the problem. The English Journal, 49(2), 82-88.
Dunmore, D. (1989). Using Contextual Clues to Infer Word Meaning: an Evaluation of Current Exercise Types Don Dunmore. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6(1), 337.
Hague, S. A. (1987). Vocabulary instruction: What L2 can learn from L1. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 217-225.
Harvey, P. (1983). Vocabulary learning: the use of grids. ELT journal, 37(3), 243-246.
Kameenui, E. J., Carnine, D. W. & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading research quarterly, , 367-388.
Kameenui, E. J., Dixon, D. & Carnine, D. W. (1987). Issues in the design of vocabulary instruction. In (), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale, NJ.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching, 13(3-4), 221-246.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004). Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1985). Incidental vs. Instructional Approaches to Increasing Reading Vocabulary. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 16-21.
Nelson-Herber, J. (1986). Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 626-633.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Thelen, J. N. (1986). Vocabulary Instruction and Meaningful Learning. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 603-609.

閱讀理解和詞彙能力有什麼關係?

增加閱讀理解,就能夠幫助詞彙的增加(Beck,Perfetti & McKeown, 1982; Kameenui,Carnine & Freschi, 1982; Stahl, 1983),這樣子的說法經Davis (1944) 分析了許多因素之間的關係後,也發現這閱讀理解和詞彙增加確實存在互相彼此影響的關係。

在第一語言詞彙成長的討論中,其中心都是伴隨著閱讀理解的關係(Hague, 1987)。Hague (1987)曾把第一語言詞彙成長的五種解釋放在第二語言學習的脈絡下討論:這五個解釋分別是性向(aptitude hypothesis)、知識(knowledge hypothesis)、工具性(instrumentalist hypothesis)、讀取(access hypothesis),以及融合以上四個解釋的互動(interaction, instructional design hypothesis)。

性向假說指的是一個人天生的能力,某些人自然就能夠學會較多詞彙,而有較好的閱讀能力;知識假說則認為詞彙的知識是反應了這個人一般的知識,而間接影響了他的閱讀能力;工具性假說則提直接將詞彙和閱讀能力以「相關」的形式表示(這樣的假說下,可以透過刻意去教詞彙來帶動閱讀能力的提昇);讀取假說則認為當一個詞語還沒被完全熟悉而能夠快速、輕易地讀取時,人們是不會使用這個詞,因此需要有多次的接觸和練習才能達成熟悉;在上面四種解釋互動下,Kameenui,Dixon and Carnine (1987)提出了詞彙應該如何學習的方法,其目標就是增進閱讀的理解。

References

Anders, P. L. & Bos, C. S. (1986). Semantic Feature Analysis: An Interactive Strategy for Vocabulary Development and Text Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 610-616.
Beck, I. L. & McKeown, M. G. (1985). Teaching vocabulary: Making the instruction fit the goal. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 11-15.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A. & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.. Journal of educational psychology, 74(4), 506.
Carr, E. & Wixson, K. K. (1986). Guidelines for Evaluating Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 588-595.
Davis, F. B. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197.
Deighton, L. C. (1960). Developing vocabulary: Another look at the problem. The English Journal, 49(2), 82-88.
Dunmore, D. (1989). Using Contextual Clues to Infer Word Meaning: an Evaluation of Current Exercise Types Don Dunmore. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6(1), 337.
Hague, S. A. (1987). Vocabulary instruction: What L2 can learn from L1. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 217-225.
Harvey, P. (1983). Vocabulary learning: the use of grids. ELT journal, 37(3), 243-246.
Kameenui, E. J., Carnine, D. W. & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading research quarterly, , 367-388.
Kameenui, E. J., Dixon, D. & Carnine, D. W. (1987). Issues in the design of vocabulary instruction. In (), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale, NJ.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching, 13(3-4), 221-246.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004). Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1985). Incidental vs. Instructional Approaches to Increasing Reading Vocabulary. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 16-21.
Nelson-Herber, J. (1986). Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 626-633.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Thelen, J. N. (1986). Vocabulary Instruction and Meaningful Learning. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 603-609.

學習第二語言詞彙和學習第一語言有何異同?

對於剛開始學習第二語言的學習者的詞彙學習,有兩個比較明顯的特徵:一、他們能夠聽、說、讀、寫的詞彙是幾乎一致的;二、初期的詞彙都只是將學習者既有的概念和一個新的標籤連結在一塊而已。

這樣子的特徵和學習第一語言詞彙是有很大的差別的。在第一語言的時候,聽、說、讀、寫的詞彙是有很大的差異的(Deighton, 1960);而且,學習一個新的標籤時,也同時學得一個新的概念(Mezynski, 1983)。

一開始學習第二語言的時候,我們會覺得自己進步飛快,但是當學習者要從初階閱讀到進階閱讀的時候,學習的困難就會發生了。剛開始學習第二語言的時候,學生所閱讀的是經過簡化的文本,但是當學生開始接觸未經簡化的真實文本時,接觸的單字不再由教科書所控制。也由於學習者所閱讀的文本通常是缺乏背景知識的文本,例如標的語人們的文化或風俗,於是學習者會開始認為學習第二語言不再如同一開始那樣容易。

一但過了上面的階段,學習第二語言詞彙的方式就會更接近第一語言的方式。學習者不再只是學一個已知概念的標籤,同時要學會新的概念。

References

Anders, P. L. & Bos, C. S. (1986). Semantic Feature Analysis: An Interactive Strategy for Vocabulary Development and Text Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 610-616.
Beck, I. L. & McKeown, M. G. (1985). Teaching vocabulary: Making the instruction fit the goal. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 11-15.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A. & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.. Journal of educational psychology, 74(4), 506.
Carr, E. & Wixson, K. K. (1986). Guidelines for Evaluating Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 588-595.
Davis, F. B. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197.
Deighton, L. C. (1960). Developing vocabulary: Another look at the problem. The English Journal, 49(2), 82-88.
Dunmore, D. (1989). Using Contextual Clues to Infer Word Meaning: an Evaluation of Current Exercise Types Don Dunmore. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6(1), 337.
Hague, S. A. (1987). Vocabulary instruction: What L2 can learn from L1. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 217-225.
Harvey, P. (1983). Vocabulary learning: the use of grids. ELT journal, 37(3), 243-246.
Kameenui, E. J., Carnine, D. W. & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading research quarterly, , 367-388.
Kameenui, E. J., Dixon, D. & Carnine, D. W. (1987). Issues in the design of vocabulary instruction. In (), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale, NJ.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching, 13(3-4), 221-246.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004). Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1985). Incidental vs. Instructional Approaches to Increasing Reading Vocabulary. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 16-21.
Nelson-Herber, J. (1986). Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 626-633.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Thelen, J. N. (1986). Vocabulary Instruction and Meaningful Learning. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 603-609.

CLIL具體怎麼進行?一個用英語上體育課的例子。

Heras and Lasagabaster (2015)有這樣子的例子。西班牙有17個行政區,有6個是雙語區。娜瓦利(Navarre)是巴斯克和西班牙語的雙語區。在一個鄉下地方的國民中學就有機會參加不同計畫的CLIL課程。以一個不具名的國民中學為例,它可能會參加以法語學習歷史和地理的CLIL課程,同時參加以英語學習體育的CLIL課程。

以英語學習體育的CLIL課程怎麼進行呢?四年的體育課中,並非全部都以英語進行,而是每年每年調高比例:第一年有15%用英語、第二年30%、第三年50%,第四年66%。兩個英語系的老師和一個負責體育課程的CLIL老師每週見面一次以協調課程。英語老師必須把課程內容翻譯。課程內容在前兩次上課是由英語老師進行,如此學習可以在正式的體育課之前得到相關的詞語。以 娜瓦利的攀岩課程為例,12小時的課程中,有10個小時教學(包含1個小時由英語老師所進行的教學),2個小時評量。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

性別在語言學習動機上的差異,是否會因為CLIL而減少?

在外語學習的研究中,性別一直是很重要的變項。在對於外語學習的策略上、動機上、抗拒程度上,男生女生都存在差異。

然而,有不少在CLIL下的學習者,是許多因為性別有差異的地方都比非CLIL的差異更小。Lasagabaster (2008) 認為是在同時學習語言和科目的學習環境下,男生的學習者被驅動了學習動機。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

動機和第二語言習得在不同時期的文獻告訴我們什麼?

Dörnyei and Ushioda (2009)回顧文獻,將第二語言習得在動機的文獻上分為三個階段:社會心理期(1959-90)、認知環境期(1990s)和社會動態期(21世紀的轉向)。
在社會心理期,研究主要來自加拿大。加拿大因為語言的關係,使人們分為英語圈和法語圈的分化,因此這時候的研究旨在了解對於學習另外一個族群語言的動機是不是能夠消彌不同社群的歧見。當學習者比較正面地看得另一個社群,且有想和另一個社群溝通的慾望,那就有較好的學習。這是有一點兒融合的意味(integrative orientation或integrativeness)。

1990年代開始,認知心理學加入,而且研究也往加拿大以外的地方進行。這轉向開始關注和課堂學習的動機,學習的環境包括課程、老師和同儕。

社會動態期則關注自我認同和動機的關係。Dörnyei (2009)的「第二語言動機性自我系統」(L2 Motivational Self System)不只是在個人的第二語言而進一步要使動機能夠在全球化下的不同語言學習環境。「第二語言動機性自我系統」將認知、情緒和脈絡因素通通整合在一起。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

研究動機和第二語言習得,可以用什麼框架進行?

動機在第二語言習得的文獻中,一直有許多討論。有很長一段時間,文獻認為動機是一個穩定且線性的關係;但是,近二十年來,也開始有比較動態的觀點。主要是因為,這些關於動機和第二語言習得的研究都是在不一樣的脈絡下進行,這使得動機對於語言學習有不一樣的關係(Masgoret & Gardner, 2003) 。另外,之所以有許多學習者對於第二語言學習的動機減弱,除了教學方法之外,學習者的心理變化,例如拒絕整個學校系統也可能是原因。CLIL有沒有辦法使動機改變呢?

Seikkula-Leino (2007)的研究發現雖然學習者在CLIL的課程下比較有動機去學習,但是他們對於自己的外語能力和非CLIL的同學相比,卻比較沒有自信。Dörnyei (2009)曾經提出「第二語言動機性自我系統」(L2 Motivational Self System)用以探索學習者認同和學習環境。Heras and Lasagabaster (2015)亦使用此框架研究學習者在CLIL的課程下的自我認同。

第二語言動機性自我系統包含三個組成:理想的第二語言自我(Ideal L2 self)、理應的第二語言自我(Ought-to L2 self)以及第二語言學習經驗(L2 Learning Experience)。理想的第二語言自我是所有人們在第二語言中想擁有的特質,如果學習者想成為會學二語的人,這個就會是一個強大的動機去使真實的自我和理想的自我之間的鴻溝逐漸縮小。而理應的第二語言自我則是那些被認為應該要有擁有,但是要避免負面結果的特質,這並不是個人的慾望或希望。這比較多的是外在誘引,而不是內在驅動的工具性動機。第二語言學習經驗則和學習環境有關,例如老師、課程、同儕或成功經驗。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

學詞彙是不是有最好的策略?

Sanaoui (1995)的質化研究中觀察在英屬哥倫比亞學習法語作為二語的學習者,其認為學習者的語言程度和教學方式並不會影響詞彙的學習,真正影響個人詞彙學習是其是否有結構(structured/ unstructured)。

另外,也有研究表明教師是可以訓練學習者注重詞彙學習(Schmitt & Schmitt, 1993; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999; Fan, 2003) 。

詞彙學習的策略並不是去認識一個詞。每一個詞彙學習策略都有它的優點。那些成功學習詞彙的人不只有多樣的學習策略,而且是持之以恆地去使用。

References

Fan, M. Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. The Modern Language Journal, 87(2), 222-241.
Folse, K. (2002). One Japanese ESL learner’s use of context clues to complete an assignment. Unpublished manuscript, , .
Folse, K. S. (1999). The effect of type of written practice activity on second language vocabulary retention (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from
Folse, K. S. (2004). Myths about teaching and learning second language vocabulary: What recent research says. TESL reporter, 37(2), 1-13.
Folse, K. S. & Briggs, S. J. (2007). Vocabulary Myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 216.
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In (), Vocabulary and applied linguistics. Springer.
Kojic-Sabo, I. & Lightbown, P. M. (1999). Students’ approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 176-192.
Paribakht, T. S. & Wesche, M. (1996). Enhancing Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading: A Hierarchy of Text-Related Exercise Types.. Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 155-78.
Sanaoui, R. (1995). Adult learners’ approaches to learning vocabulary in second languages. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 15-28.
Schatz, E. K. & Baldwin, R. S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, , 439-453.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. R. (1993). Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary Learning Strategies.. Thai TESOL Bulletin, 5(4), 27-33.

二語學習者能否像母語者一樣,從脈絡猜出詞語的意思?

對於母語者而言,脈絡中有一個不認識的詞語而其它都是認識的詞語是常見的狀況;而二語學習者則可能是在一個段落裡頭就有無數的個不認識的詞語。當段落中有多個不認識的詞語時,就很容易迷路或誤導 (Folse, 2002; Folse & Briggs, 2007)。即是母語者在脈絡下去猜測新詞的詞義,也不見得能夠受益於脈絡(Schatz & Baldwin, 1986)。(Folse, 2004)認為要求二語學習者去從脈絡中猜出新詞的詞義是沒有道理的。

第一語言和第二語言的學習過程是不一樣的。在學習第一語言的時候,大多數的詞語我們並未刻意地去學習,通常會在不同脈絡下接觸到詞語;但是第二語言沒有這樣反覆接觸的機會,人們只有很短的時間就必須達到相當的程度。

在強調溝通或自然的學習方式下,語法、拼字、詞彙、老師的動作或糾錯,都會被認為是比較不適合的過程。好像變魔術一樣,詞彙可以在沒有刻意或系統地學習下就能成長。似乎只要「理解」了,就不必注意不認識的詞了!

但是,二語學習者不可避免的就是有很多詞語必須根據脈絡去猜。這使得詞彙量較少的學習者就會處在劣勢,Folse (1999) 發現當學習者知道的詞語越多去,也就更容易從脈絡中去猜出詞義。

Hulstijn (1992)的研究結論,雖然比起直接給於學習者詞義,由學習者自己推論詞義的方式,比較能夠使詞語的形和義連結起來,但是當學習者沒有任何線索而必須自己去推論詞義時錯誤的理解就常常發生。

Paribakht and Wesche (1996)比較只有閱讀和有閱讀伴隨著指導的兩種詞彙學習,雖然單純閱讀也有學習發生的可能,但是伴隨著指導的學習有更顯著的且深入的詞彙知識。

References

Fan, M. Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. The Modern Language Journal, 87(2), 222-241.
Folse, K. (2002). One Japanese ESL learner’s use of context clues to complete an assignment. Unpublished manuscript, , .
Folse, K. S. (1999). The effect of type of written practice activity on second language vocabulary retention (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from
Folse, K. S. (2004). Myths about teaching and learning second language vocabulary: What recent research says. TESL reporter, 37(2), 1-13.
Folse, K. S. & Briggs, S. J. (2007). Vocabulary Myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 216.
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In (), Vocabulary and applied linguistics. Springer.
Kojic-Sabo, I. & Lightbown, P. M. (1999). Students’ approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 176-192.
Paribakht, T. S. & Wesche, M. (1996). Enhancing Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading: A Hierarchy of Text-Related Exercise Types.. Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 155-78.
Sanaoui, R. (1995). Adult learners’ approaches to learning vocabulary in second languages. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 15-28.
Schatz, E. K. & Baldwin, R. S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, , 439-453.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. R. (1993). Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary Learning Strategies.. Thai TESOL Bulletin, 5(4), 27-33.

學習第二語言的時候,使用翻譯真的不好嗎?

有許多的實證研究都證明第一語言的翻譯在第二語言學習有其價值。

Hulstijn,Hollander and Greidanus (1996)比較閱讀文章旁邊用學生的一語和二語的注釋(marginal gloss),結果發現以學生的一語比較容易幫助學習,Laufer and Shmueli (1997)也呼應這樣的結果;Lotto and De Groot (1998) 則比較以第一語言和圖片作為示意的情況,結果發現以學生的一語比圖片的呈現,學生對於新詞記得更久(retention);Grace (1998)則發現英語母語者學法語的時候,學習者認為在能夠有一語的情況下,比較容易確認正確的意思;Prince (1996)發現,透過一語翻譯的情況對於程度較差的學習者而言,比較容易能夠去回想(recall)起新詞。

這並不是說學習二語一定要依靠第一語言翻譯,第一語言之所以有價值,在於其能夠讓學習者將新知識和舊知識連結在一起,去激發已經穩固的詞彙網絡。學習新詞的時候,之所以要激發先前的知識的因為它以經是個連結綿密的資訊網,一但新的詞彙能夠整合到這個資訊網裡頭,只要有一點點連結,學習者就容易喚回詞彙。許多研究都支持這樣子的說法(Stahl, 1983; Stoller & Grabe, 1993; Martin,Martin & Ying, 2002; Schmitt and Schmitt (1995) 。

References

Grace, C. A. (1998). Retention of Word Meanings Inferred from Context and Sentence-Level Translations: Implications for the Design of Beginning-Level CALL Software. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 533-544.
Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M. & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The modern language journal, 80(3), 327-339.
Laufer, B. & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it?. RELC journal, 28(1), 89-108.
Lotto, L. & De Groot, A. (1998). Effects of learning method and word type on acquiring vocabulary in an unfamiliar language. Language learning, 48(1), 31-69.
Martin, M. A., Martin, S. H. & Ying, W. (2002). The Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy in the ESL Classroom. TESOL Journal, 11(2), 34-35.
Olsen, S. (1999). Errors and compensatory strategies: A study of grammar and vocabulary in texts written by Norwegian learners of English. System, 27(2), 191-205.
Prince, P. (1996). Second language vocabulary learning: The role of context versus translations as a function of proficiency. The modern language journal, 80(4), 478-493.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. (1995). Vocabulary notebooks: Theoretical underpinnings and practical suggestions. ELT journal, 49(2), 133-143.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Tinkham, T. (1993). The effect of semantic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. System, 21(3), 371-380.
Tinkham, T. (1997). The effects of semantic and thematic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. Second language research, 13(2), 138-163.
Waring, R. (1997). The negative effects of learning words in semantic sets: A replication. System, 25(2), 261-274.