先有概念?還是先有詞語?

許多發展心理學家認為由於接觸到詞彙,就會使人們在陌生的概念間建立界線(例如:Bowerman and others (1996)、Gentner and Boroditsky (2001) 、Gopnik and Meltzoff (1987); Gopnik,Meltzoff and Bryant (1997) 、Waxman and Markow (1995) 、Waxman and Thompson (1998) )。

跟小孩子說這兩種不同的話語時,小孩子會有不同的反應:「See this one. Find another one.」和「See this fendle. Find another fendle.」(Markman & Hutchinson, 1984) ,前者小孩子會根據空間或可能一起出現的事物選擇,例如選擇一個骨頭搭配狗;後者則會選擇相同類別的事物,把一隻台灣土狗選擇另一隻博美狗搭配。詞語可以使人們建立一個類別。小孩本來就會知道台灣土狗和博美狗是同一個類別「狗」,狗這個概念是在聽到「fendle」前就存在的,而詞語的角色就是讓小孩子知道在這個脈絡下它們是一個類別。詞語的功能在於在使小孩子的目光放到一個心裡本來就存在的類別。

引用Bloom (2000)的說法:當小嬰兒耳朵發炎的時候,我們會放一個小管子到耳朵裡,讓耳朵裡的體液可以流出來,很俗地講就是「耳朵裡的管子」,但是這個東西有一個專門的名字「grommets」。我們學會「grommets」這個詞,並不表示我們產生了一個新的類別,我們只是不知道這個東西的名字而已。如果所有的詞語學習都是這樣的運作過程的話,那麼詞語並沒有幫助我們形成任何新的概念。

References

Bloom, P. (2000). Words and Concepts. In (), How children learn the meanings of words. The MIT Press.
Bowerman, M. & others (1996). Learning how to structure space for language: A crosslinguistic perspective. In Peterson, L. Nadel & M. Garrett (Ed.), Language and space (pp. 385-436). MIT Press.
Carruthers, P. (1998). Language, thought and consciousness: An essay in philosophical psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, N. S. & Gelman, S. A. (1990). Inductions from novel categories: The role of language and conceptual structure. Cognitive Development, 5(2), 151-176.
De Villiers, J. & De Villiers, P. (1997). Linguistic determinism and theory of mind. , , .
Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. OUP USA.
Dennett, D. C. (1996). Kinds of minds: toward an understanding of consciousness. Basic Books.
Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought (Vol. 5). Harvard University Press.
Gelman, S. A. & Coley, J. D. (1990). The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children.. Developmental psychology, 26(5), 796.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. Cognition, 23(3), 183-209.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1987). Young children’s inductions from natural kinds: The role of categories and appearances. Child development, , 1532-1541.
Gentner, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. In (), Language, culture and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Goldstone, R. L. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 178.
Goodglass, H., Denes, G. & Calderon, M. (1974). The absence of covert verbal mediation in aphasia. Cortex, 10(3), 264-269.
Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A. (1987). The development of categorization in the second year and its relation to other cognitive and linguistic developments. Child development, , 1523-1531.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N. & Bryant, P. (1997). Words, thoughts, and theories (Vol. 1). Mit Press Cambridge, MA.
Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In (), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge University Press.
Levinson, S. C. (1996). Frames of reference and Molyneux’s question: Crosslinguistic evidence. In (), Language and space (Vol. 109). MIT Press.
Lucy, J. A. & Gaskins, S. (2001). Grammatical categories and the development of classification preferences: A comparative approach. In (), Language acquisition and conceptual development. Cambridge University Press.
Markman, E. M. & Hutchinson, J. E. (1984). Children’s sensitivity to constraints on word meaning: Taxonomic versus thematic relations. Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 1-27. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(84)90002-1
Murphy, G. L. & Lassaline, M. E. (1997). Hierarchical structure in concepts and the basic level of categorization. In (), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. MIT Press.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R. & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: The case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 125-137.
Solomon, G. E. (1997). Conceptual change and wine expertise. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(1), 41-60.
Tajfel, H. & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). Classification and quantitative judgement. British journal of psychology, 54(2), 101-114.
Waxman, S. & Thompson, W. (1998). Words are invitations to learn about categories. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(1), 88-88.
Waxman, S. R. & Markow, D. B. (1995). Words as invitations to form categories: Evidence from 12-to 13-month-old infants. Cognitive psychology, 29(3), 257-302.
Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128.

參加「2017年海外華語教師師資培訓營」有感:一個脫離當地脈絡的華語教學

參加國立成功大學華語中心和正大管理學院舉辦的「2017年海外華語教師師資培訓營」主要有三種對象:第一種對象是成大華語中心招募、培訓的華語教師;第二種對象則是由教育部選送的華語教學助理;第三種對象是泰國在地的華語老師。前兩種對象都是中華民國國籍,第一種對象主要是有經驗的華語老師,通常來自各大學的華語中心;第二種對象則是台灣各大學華語文教學相關系所的學生。第三種對象簡單地說雖然是泰國在地的華語老師,但是背景是相對分歧且多元的。我沒有辦法認識所有在地的華語老師,但光我所接觸的老師就包括:實驗中學(以及國際學校)、一般大學、社區大學、中華會館的華語老師。培訓營的目標對象是第一種對象,後面兩種對象能夠參加培訓營主要是沾第一種對象的光。

雖然是培訓營,但並不是什麼夏令營,因此也沒有什麼長頸鹿小隊或哈密瓜小組之類的,「親不親,故鄉人」,大家也差不多是依據前面三種對象盤據教室的各個角落。基本上也就在大學生上課差不多。

國立成功大學華語中心的講師很努力地想告訴參加培訓營的學員們知道台灣的華語中心是怎麼上課的,使出混身解數地要把學員們帶到台灣的脈絡。

比如「課程設計(以語言任務課為例)」課程為例,講師開頭先告訴學員,任務課完成任務最重要,語言精確度為其次,並舉例一些現實生活會遇到的場景以作為任務課的任務:點餐、購物、買東西…等。這些任務可能在台灣是日常生活,但在泰國都不需要以華語就能夠達成。課程中,講師讓學員設計一堂任務課,有的小組的選的任務是失物招領,有的是點餐,有的是租屋。這些任務在泰國使用華語都是無用武之地,然而幾乎所有小組都假定自己是華語中心的老師,假裝自己班上的學生來自世界各國,想像學生可以在中國大陸或台灣的某個餐廳進行點餐或找人租房子。也許培訓營最終的目標是讓這些來過泰國的華語老師(第一種對象)最後可以回到成大華語中心任教,但是對於第二種對象和第三種對象,明明就是在泰國教華語,卻要假裝未來要到台灣的語言中心難免覺得格格不入。

「課程設計(以文化課為例)」課程是比較輕鬆的課程,我們唱華語歌、剪紙、做香包。曾有泰國地區中學的老師怨中國大陸的華語老師,上課叫同學帶剪刀,然後就上剪紙,整堂課剪下來後,完全不知道為什麼要剪紙,中學的老師和同學應該都會傻眼。也許這個課程比較像是培訓學員學會某個技巧,而關於剪紙、香包背後的知識應該由學員自己探索。

如果說「2017年華文教育名師巡講」飄著一股濃濃的石歧中心小學的中國味的話,那麼「2017年海外華語教師師資培訓營」也是飄著一股濃濃的成大華語中心的台灣味。石歧中心小學對我而言,心理距離比較遠,寬以待人,儘管他把整個石歧中心小學的教學搬到泰國來,我們也只能期待泰國人將它在地化;成大是感覺比較近的,嚴以律己,我認為應該更接地氣幫助泰國的華語老師。「2017年海外華語教師師資培訓營」的講師都是有經驗的語言老師,已經現身在泰國了,何不讓泰國的華語老師們報告自己上教學上的困難,講師則以顧問的方式提供協助?或許讓平常不會相遇的華語老師們互相分享、吐苦水,也是另一個學習、成長的方法。

參加「2017年海外華語教師師資培訓營」有感:華語教學離外語教學還有很長的一段路要走

在台灣,台南市首倡以英語做為第二官方語言,市政府的第二官方語言專案辦公室和國立成功大學外國語文學系在11月中進行「2017國小學科內容與語言整合學習」 。同一年的,10月31日和11月1日、2日,我也參加了由國立成功大學華語中心和正大管理學院舉辦的「2017年海外華語教師師資培訓營」。成大外文系和成大華語中心,雖然都來自台南,但是對於外語學習的看法有很大的差異。

「學科內容與語言整合學習」(Content and Language Integrated Learning, CLIL) 自1990年開始被提出,是一個用來含括過往有效的語言學習方法的術語。所有能夠成功學習的語言條件在於不把語言作為學科來教授或學習,學習者以第二語言學習學科的內容,它可以是地理、歷史、數學、生物、體育…等。 學習者使用第二語言學習學科內容,而不是學習第二語言以待未來有朝一日能夠運用第二語言。這是成大外文系對於外語學習的看法。

成大華語中心在三天的培訓營中的課程包括:課室活動設計、漢字教學、語法教學、課程設計(以語言任務課為例)和課程設計(以文化課為例)。三天的課程中,語言本身就是學科。學生也在課堂上使用第二語言,但是比較像是為了使用而使用,並不是像CLIL的目標為了學習內容而使用。以「語法教學」為例:語言教師結合實際情景的對話,引入語法點、講解語法點、練習語法點,語言變成學科。「課室活動設計」課程中許多的課室活動也同樣以語言為目標。

雖然成大外文系和成大華語中心都來自提倡以英語做為第二官方語言的台南市,但是兩者對於外語學習的看法存在很大的差異。

人們是先有思想才有語言?還是先有語言才有思想?自已給個心理的演講。

「心理的演講」(inner speech)也被一些人視為是一個「語言決定論」(linguistic determinism)的版本。在這樣的觀點中,自己內心的聲音就被視為是自己思考的過程。自然語言在這樣的觀點中,比較像是額外的心理表徵。嬰兒會有思考的語言;而成人在思考的語言之外,額外有一個自然語言(可能是英語、華語會任何語言)。

當我們在組織一個文章或者想像要跟某個人說什麼話的時候,就是需要依靠「心理演講」的認知任務。但是也有人認為,「心理演講」在因果推論(causal reasoning)、社會認知等方面扮演了更積極的角色(Carruthers, 1998) 。例如思考「自己若不去參加派對,某個人會怎麼反應的時候。」當沒有自然語言的的支援時「How will Jane react if I don」t go to her party?」,可能我們就無法思考更多情境。

把MM豆外觀的鐵盒子裡放幾枝鉛筆,然後搖一搖讓它出聲音,接著問小朋友,裡面裝什麼。小朋友可能會猜是MM豆,打開盒子之後讓小朋友看到鉛筆。接著問他沒看到盒子裡面東西的小朋友,會回答盒子裡有什麼?四歲之後的小朋友就會回答MM豆,但是更小的小朋友就會說是鉛筆。這是一個推測他人心理想法的實驗例子(false-belief task)(Wimmer & Perner, 1983; Perner,Leekam & Wimmer, 1987) 。有一些人認為這是任務本身的認知要求較高,所以小孩子無法完成(Leslie, 1994) ;有一些人認為,這個情境還沒能讓小孩子編碼到(encode)自然語言裡頭(De Villiers & De Villiers, 1997)。

有一些成年之後失語症(aphasics)的患者,存在語言和思考解離的徵狀。這些人並不是智障,他們有正常的行為,雖不會手語也能畫畫、比劃,他們就像是被剝奪了溝通的能力。他們在語言能力上的缺陷,常常必需透過其它溝通管道來彌補。有報告認為,由於心理演講的機制出了問題,缺少了來自頭腦深層的聲音,有一些失語症患者的主體性(subjective experience)變得更差(Goodglass,Denes & Calderon, 1974) 。Rosemary把類似MM豆的實驗讓失語症患者進行,這些患者在理解或產出句子很有問題,頂多就是一些分離的詞語,但是所有人都可以完成任務。我們很難說「語言」就和「思考」沒有關聯,畢竟這些都是曾經擁有語言的患者。但是,我們可以說進行因果或意向推論的時候,似乎不需要使用自然語言。

也有研究從失語症的患者身上,論述了精確數字推理(當成是語言(arguably the product of language))和約略的數字估算(arguably the product of the accumulator mechanism)的解離(Dehaene, 2011) 。但尚沒有證據顯示是否是因為缺少數字的詞語,而無法進行數字運算。

References

Bloom, P. (2000). Words and Concepts. In (), How children learn the meanings of words. The MIT Press.
Bowerman, M. & others (1996). Learning how to structure space for language: A crosslinguistic perspective. In Peterson, L. Nadel & M. Garrett (Ed.), Language and space (pp. 385-436). MIT Press.
Carruthers, P. (1998). Language, thought and consciousness: An essay in philosophical psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, N. S. & Gelman, S. A. (1990). Inductions from novel categories: The role of language and conceptual structure. Cognitive Development, 5(2), 151-176.
De Villiers, J. & De Villiers, P. (1997). Linguistic determinism and theory of mind. , , .
Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. OUP USA.
Dennett, D. C. (1996). Kinds of minds: toward an understanding of consciousness. Basic Books.
Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought (Vol. 5). Harvard University Press.
Gelman, S. A. & Coley, J. D. (1990). The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children.. Developmental psychology, 26(5), 796.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. Cognition, 23(3), 183-209.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1987). Young children’s inductions from natural kinds: The role of categories and appearances. Child development, , 1532-1541.
Gentner, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. In (), Language, culture and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Goldstone, R. L. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 178.
Goodglass, H., Denes, G. & Calderon, M. (1974). The absence of covert verbal mediation in aphasia. Cortex, 10(3), 264-269.
Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A. (1987). The development of categorization in the second year and its relation to other cognitive and linguistic developments. Child development, , 1523-1531.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N. & Bryant, P. (1997). Words, thoughts, and theories (Vol. 1). Mit Press Cambridge, MA.
Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In (), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge University Press.
Levinson, S. C. (1996). Frames of reference and Molyneux’s question: Crosslinguistic evidence. In (), Language and space (Vol. 109). MIT Press.
Lucy, J. A. & Gaskins, S. (2001). Grammatical categories and the development of classification preferences: A comparative approach. In (), Language acquisition and conceptual development. Cambridge University Press.
Markman, E. M. & Hutchinson, J. E. (1984). Children’s sensitivity to constraints on word meaning: Taxonomic versus thematic relations. Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 1-27. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(84)90002-1
Murphy, G. L. & Lassaline, M. E. (1997). Hierarchical structure in concepts and the basic level of categorization. In (), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. MIT Press.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R. & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: The case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 125-137.
Solomon, G. E. (1997). Conceptual change and wine expertise. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(1), 41-60.
Tajfel, H. & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). Classification and quantitative judgement. British journal of psychology, 54(2), 101-114.
Waxman, S. & Thompson, W. (1998). Words are invitations to learn about categories. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(1), 88-88.
Waxman, S. R. & Markow, D. B. (1995). Words as invitations to form categories: Evidence from 12-to 13-month-old infants. Cognitive psychology, 29(3), 257-302.
Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128.

是文化影響認知?還是語言影響認知?

Lucy and Gaskins (2001)有一系列的研究試圖回答這個問題。他們先讓受試者看目標物,接著會給受試者兩個選項,讓他們選擇其認為和目標物最相似的物品。一個物品和目標物的形狀是一樣,但是材質是不一樣的;另一個物品則是相同材質,但是形狀不一樣。受試者不會聽到任何新的詞語。英語母語者的選擇傾向以形狀來決定兩個物品的相似;但是來自墨西哥的一個馬雅語言尤卡特語(Yucatec Maya)人則傾向根據材質。

Lucy and Gaskins (2001) Lucy gaskin把同樣的任務讓七歲的英語和尤卡特語母語者進行,結果並沒有發現如成人的傾向,也就是不論英語或尤卡特語的小孩都傾向以形狀來決定兩個物品的相似。如果我們把兩個實驗一起看的話,七歲小孩也是能夠自由運用語言的人,但在七歲小孩身上沒發現差異,但是成人身上會發現差異,那語言影響的可能性應該就比較低,文化影響認知的可能性比較高。

回答相同的問題,Levinson (1996) 採用不同的取徑。有一些語言習慣用相對位置來描述事物的位置,有一些語言則傾向用絕對的位置,德語符合前者,Tenejapa符合後者。讓受試者坐在桌子前面,桌上依序由左至右擺著牛、豬、馬、羊四個小玩具,受試者被要求記下這個位置後,受試者向後轉(轉了180度),然後依照記下來的位置,在另一張桌上擺出來。結果,德語母語者仍然會依照自己的視角,由左至右擺了四個小玩具。但是Tenejapa卻以先前的絕對位置,由左至右擺放了羊、馬、豬、牛。

另一個實驗則讓Tenejapa面向北方看一個卡通,卡通裡的人物都從東邊往西邊運動,接著再請受試者到另一個房間報告剛剛看到的卡通。德語母語者仍保持相對位置的描述;Tenejapa則是把卡通人物剛剛出現的方向以絕對位置報告出來。

Levinson (1996) 認為,這是因為傾向絕對或相對位置的語言使人們有如此不一樣的概念表徵。

雖然,這樣子的結果似乎說明了語言影響了認知,但是這個絕對位置和相對位置的系統在許多生物身上都有,因此它是獨立於語言的認知。不論德語母語者或Tenejapa,他們肯定也有有絕對位置和相對位置的概念,只是他們的傾向不一樣。如果語言對於空間的認知有影響的話,那不會是因為語言而對空間有了新的認知,而且語言使人們選擇那個他更習慣的空間思考。

References

Bloom, P. (2000). Words and Concepts. In (), How children learn the meanings of words. The MIT Press.
Bowerman, M. & others (1996). Learning how to structure space for language: A crosslinguistic perspective. In Peterson, L. Nadel & M. Garrett (Ed.), Language and space (pp. 385-436). MIT Press.
Carruthers, P. (1998). Language, thought and consciousness: An essay in philosophical psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, N. S. & Gelman, S. A. (1990). Inductions from novel categories: The role of language and conceptual structure. Cognitive Development, 5(2), 151-176.
De Villiers, J. & De Villiers, P. (1997). Linguistic determinism and theory of mind. , , .
Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. OUP USA.
Dennett, D. C. (1996). Kinds of minds: toward an understanding of consciousness. Basic Books.
Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought (Vol. 5). Harvard University Press.
Gelman, S. A. & Coley, J. D. (1990). The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children.. Developmental psychology, 26(5), 796.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. Cognition, 23(3), 183-209.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1987). Young children’s inductions from natural kinds: The role of categories and appearances. Child development, , 1532-1541.
Gentner, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. In (), Language, culture and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Goldstone, R. L. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 178.
Goodglass, H., Denes, G. & Calderon, M. (1974). The absence of covert verbal mediation in aphasia. Cortex, 10(3), 264-269.
Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A. (1987). The development of categorization in the second year and its relation to other cognitive and linguistic developments. Child development, , 1523-1531.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N. & Bryant, P. (1997). Words, thoughts, and theories (Vol. 1). Mit Press Cambridge, MA.
Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In (), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge University Press.
Levinson, S. C. (1996). Frames of reference and Molyneux’s question: Crosslinguistic evidence. In (), Language and space (Vol. 109). MIT Press.
Lucy, J. A. & Gaskins, S. (2001). Grammatical categories and the development of classification preferences: A comparative approach. In (), Language acquisition and conceptual development. Cambridge University Press.
Markman, E. M. & Hutchinson, J. E. (1984). Children’s sensitivity to constraints on word meaning: Taxonomic versus thematic relations. Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 1-27. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(84)90002-1
Murphy, G. L. & Lassaline, M. E. (1997). Hierarchical structure in concepts and the basic level of categorization. In (), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. MIT Press.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R. & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: The case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 125-137.
Solomon, G. E. (1997). Conceptual change and wine expertise. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(1), 41-60.
Tajfel, H. & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). Classification and quantitative judgement. British journal of psychology, 54(2), 101-114.
Waxman, S. & Thompson, W. (1998). Words are invitations to learn about categories. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(1), 88-88.
Waxman, S. R. & Markow, D. B. (1995). Words as invitations to form categories: Evidence from 12-to 13-month-old infants. Cognitive psychology, 29(3), 257-302.
Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128.

為什麼語言可以被視為是有結構的想法?語言決定論的邏輯。

Bloom (2000) 提供了我們一些語言決定論的想法:

請想像一個水平線,最左邊三分之一的部分我們叫它「zoop」,剩下的部分則是「moop」。一開始,我們對這條水平線沒有任何想法,但是經過上面的過程後我們對這條水平線有了結構。這就是認知的結果。例如:你可以知道這條線被平均地分為三等分,然後可以概據這樣子的線索,知道兩個zoop就和一個moop是一樣的。

或者再想像有人在你面前放在50個不同顏色、不同材質的小東西,然後有個人指著所有紅色、則質地柔軟的東西叫作「doops」。這會使你將紅色、柔軟的東西通通視為一個特殊的類別,而且這個類別會影響你看待事物的方式,而且使你回想其它物品的組合,即使這並不是在一個要求溝通的情境下。

也可以想像看到一個亂七八糟的房間,東西散落在各個角落。人們透過語言,可以描述當時所看到的情景;但是,對於沒有語言的動物而言,這樣子的景象,只有視覺輸入的記憶。兩者在儲存資訊上就存在很大的差異。

從邏輯上,有了語言似乎使我們的想法更有結構。那麼,在沒有語言前,人們就沒有任何想法了嗎?

References

Bloom, P. (2000). Words and Concepts. In (), How children learn the meanings of words. The MIT Press.
Bowerman, M. & others (1996). Learning how to structure space for language: A crosslinguistic perspective. In Peterson, L. Nadel & M. Garrett (Ed.), Language and space (pp. 385-436). MIT Press.
Carruthers, P. (1998). Language, thought and consciousness: An essay in philosophical psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, N. S. & Gelman, S. A. (1990). Inductions from novel categories: The role of language and conceptual structure. Cognitive Development, 5(2), 151-176.
De Villiers, J. & De Villiers, P. (1997). Linguistic determinism and theory of mind. , , .
Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. OUP USA.
Dennett, D. C. (1996). Kinds of minds: toward an understanding of consciousness. Basic Books.
Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought (Vol. 5). Harvard University Press.
Gelman, S. A. & Coley, J. D. (1990). The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children.. Developmental psychology, 26(5), 796.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. Cognition, 23(3), 183-209.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1987). Young children’s inductions from natural kinds: The role of categories and appearances. Child development, , 1532-1541.
Gentner, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. In (), Language, culture and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Goldstone, R. L. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 178.
Goodglass, H., Denes, G. & Calderon, M. (1974). The absence of covert verbal mediation in aphasia. Cortex, 10(3), 264-269.
Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A. (1987). The development of categorization in the second year and its relation to other cognitive and linguistic developments. Child development, , 1523-1531.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N. & Bryant, P. (1997). Words, thoughts, and theories (Vol. 1). Mit Press Cambridge, MA.
Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In (), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge University Press.
Levinson, S. C. (1996). Frames of reference and Molyneux’s question: Crosslinguistic evidence. In (), Language and space (Vol. 109). MIT Press.
Lucy, J. A. & Gaskins, S. (2001). Grammatical categories and the development of classification preferences: A comparative approach. In (), Language acquisition and conceptual development. Cambridge University Press.
Markman, E. M. & Hutchinson, J. E. (1984). Children’s sensitivity to constraints on word meaning: Taxonomic versus thematic relations. Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 1-27. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(84)90002-1
Murphy, G. L. & Lassaline, M. E. (1997). Hierarchical structure in concepts and the basic level of categorization. In (), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. MIT Press.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R. & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: The case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 125-137.
Solomon, G. E. (1997). Conceptual change and wine expertise. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(1), 41-60.
Tajfel, H. & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). Classification and quantitative judgement. British journal of psychology, 54(2), 101-114.
Waxman, S. & Thompson, W. (1998). Words are invitations to learn about categories. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(1), 88-88.
Waxman, S. R. & Markow, D. B. (1995). Words as invitations to form categories: Evidence from 12-to 13-month-old infants. Cognitive psychology, 29(3), 257-302.
Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128.

小孩子是先有思想才有語言?還是先有語言才有思想?

有許多人認為小孩子在學習語言之前,就已經知道一些東西了,小孩子只是不知道名稱而已。Fodor (1975)認為這樣子的觀點把所有語言學習都當成是二語學習了。在還沒接觸詞語(例如:華語)之前,小孩子已經可以和詞語對應的概念,它是將簡單的概念以有系統的方式組織起來,是謂「思考的語言假說」(Language of thought hypothesis)或者心理語(mentalese)。

然而,「(『所有』的)思想都能自外於語言而存在」這樣子的說法在認知科學的領域中並不是主流的觀點。
語言學家和人類學家認為語言影響了思考;而發展心理學家則因為12月大和24月大的小孩在詞語和心智是同時增長的情況下,而為此困擾。通常他們會這麼解釋:詞彙是思考、想法的結晶,因此認知越發展,就會詞語就會越多;而演化的觀點則認為非人類的動物因為沒有詞彙,所以心智受限。人類之所以特別,就是因為人類能夠透過語言去思考。(Dennett, 1996; p.17)曾說:

Perhaps the kind of mind you get when you add language to it is so different from the kind of mind you can have without language that calling them both minds is a mistake.

把有語言的心智和沒有語言的心智視為是兩種不同的心智,這大概是一個錯誤的命題。

References

Bloom, P. (2000). Words and Concepts. In (), How children learn the meanings of words. The MIT Press.
Bowerman, M. & others (1996). Learning how to structure space for language: A crosslinguistic perspective. In Peterson, L. Nadel & M. Garrett (Ed.), Language and space (pp. 385-436). MIT Press.
Carruthers, P. (1998). Language, thought and consciousness: An essay in philosophical psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, N. S. & Gelman, S. A. (1990). Inductions from novel categories: The role of language and conceptual structure. Cognitive Development, 5(2), 151-176.
De Villiers, J. & De Villiers, P. (1997). Linguistic determinism and theory of mind. , , .
Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. OUP USA.
Dennett, D. C. (1996). Kinds of minds: toward an understanding of consciousness. Basic Books.
Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought (Vol. 5). Harvard University Press.
Gelman, S. A. & Coley, J. D. (1990). The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children.. Developmental psychology, 26(5), 796.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. Cognition, 23(3), 183-209.
Gelman, S. A. & Markman, E. M. (1987). Young children’s inductions from natural kinds: The role of categories and appearances. Child development, , 1532-1541.
Gentner, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. In (), Language, culture and cognition. Cambridge University Press.
Goldstone, R. L. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 178.
Goodglass, H., Denes, G. & Calderon, M. (1974). The absence of covert verbal mediation in aphasia. Cortex, 10(3), 264-269.
Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A. (1987). The development of categorization in the second year and its relation to other cognitive and linguistic developments. Child development, , 1523-1531.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N. & Bryant, P. (1997). Words, thoughts, and theories (Vol. 1). Mit Press Cambridge, MA.
Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In (), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge University Press.
Levinson, S. C. (1996). Frames of reference and Molyneux’s question: Crosslinguistic evidence. In (), Language and space (Vol. 109). MIT Press.
Lucy, J. A. & Gaskins, S. (2001). Grammatical categories and the development of classification preferences: A comparative approach. In (), Language acquisition and conceptual development. Cambridge University Press.
Markman, E. M. & Hutchinson, J. E. (1984). Children’s sensitivity to constraints on word meaning: Taxonomic versus thematic relations. Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 1-27. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(84)90002-1
Murphy, G. L. & Lassaline, M. E. (1997). Hierarchical structure in concepts and the basic level of categorization. In (), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. MIT Press.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R. & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: The case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 125-137.
Solomon, G. E. (1997). Conceptual change and wine expertise. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(1), 41-60.
Tajfel, H. & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). Classification and quantitative judgement. British journal of psychology, 54(2), 101-114.
Waxman, S. & Thompson, W. (1998). Words are invitations to learn about categories. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(1), 88-88.
Waxman, S. R. & Markow, D. B. (1995). Words as invitations to form categories: Evidence from 12-to 13-month-old infants. Cognitive psychology, 29(3), 257-302.
Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128.

第一語言詞彙發展的研究對第二語言詞彙學習有什麼樣的啟發?

第一語言詞彙發展的研究對第二語言詞彙學習會不少啟發:


一、詞彙知識是閱讀理解的基礎(Beck & McKeown, 1985) ,而且教學是可以同時對詞彙知識以及閱讀理解同時有效果的。在學術上的討論,所有關於詞彙的發展幾乎就是閱讀理解的發展(Stoller & Grabe, 1993)。

二、詞彙的發展也包括其它技能的發展,它可能是回想起意義、推論意義、理解文本、口頭溝通、正確拼字等等。這些技能都是很重要的,但是在考量這些技能之前,我們應該先考慮:學生的需求和動機、教學目標、需要學習的詞彙、需要學習的內容包含哪些字以及對於整個課程的重要性何在(Morgan & Rinvolucri, 2004) 。這不是單一個教學方法可以滿足這些不同的技能。

三、在一語的詞彙發展中,閱讀書寫的文章,這樣非刻意地學習是大多數詞彙發展的組成(Nagy & Herman, 1985)。因此,學習者不能只依靠老師課堂上的詞彙教學,老師應該鼓勵學習者閱讀以增進詞彙的學習。

四、為了使學習者可以在閱讀時學習新詞,老師應該使學習者具備獨立閱讀的能力。具體作法舉例如下:1、學習者應該有意識地讓詞語相關的詞彙可以產出;2、老師應該告訴學生如何和何時在脈絡下使用新詞(Dunmore, 1989);3、適時地使用字典。

五、和第一語言一樣,第二語言也需要多次的接觸(Meara, 1980)。有一些詞彙技巧可以有所幫助,例如語義地圖(semantic mapping)、詞彙聯想的腦內激盪(word association brainstorming),詞語格(word grids)(Harvey, 1983),或者找出在課堂外這些詞語被運用的情況。

六、只有學習者能將新的詞彙和舊有的知識連結在一塊的時候,學習才可能發生(Carr & Wixson, 1986; Nelson-Herber, 1986; Thelen, 1986) 。詞彙的選擇必須基課堂主題或理解所需(Anders & Bos, 1986; Nelson-Herber, 1986) 。語義地圖、語義特徵分析(semantic feature analysis)或關鍵字(key word)都是一些可以幫助記憶的方法。

七、組成一個人的詞彙是橫跨不同程度。它可以是知道形式、知道形式和意義的連結、知道使用等等;也可以是接受或產出的區分;還有一個能夠為了教學區分的就是知道其定義(definitional information)以及知道其在不同的脈絡下怎麼被使用(contextual information)(Stahl, 1983)。

八、在第一語言中,動機對於詞彙學習有很重要的影響,第二語言更是如此。第二語言學習者常常認為自己需要詞彙去表達自己,這就是動機。只要老師向學生說明詞彙和閱讀的關係,學生就會積極參與課堂上的詞彙教學以及非刻意學習的閱讀活動。beck把這個叫作詞語意識(word awarness)。

References

Anders, P. L. & Bos, C. S. (1986). Semantic Feature Analysis: An Interactive Strategy for Vocabulary Development and Text Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 610-616.
Beck, I. L. & McKeown, M. G. (1985). Teaching vocabulary: Making the instruction fit the goal. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 11-15.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A. & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.. Journal of educational psychology, 74(4), 506.
Carr, E. & Wixson, K. K. (1986). Guidelines for Evaluating Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 588-595.
Davis, F. B. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197.
Deighton, L. C. (1960). Developing vocabulary: Another look at the problem. The English Journal, 49(2), 82-88.
Dunmore, D. (1989). Using Contextual Clues to Infer Word Meaning: an Evaluation of Current Exercise Types Don Dunmore. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6(1), 337.
Hague, S. A. (1987). Vocabulary instruction: What L2 can learn from L1. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 217-225.
Harvey, P. (1983). Vocabulary learning: the use of grids. ELT journal, 37(3), 243-246.
Kameenui, E. J., Carnine, D. W. & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading research quarterly, , 367-388.
Kameenui, E. J., Dixon, D. & Carnine, D. W. (1987). Issues in the design of vocabulary instruction. In (), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale, NJ.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching, 13(3-4), 221-246.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004). Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1985). Incidental vs. Instructional Approaches to Increasing Reading Vocabulary. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 16-21.
Nelson-Herber, J. (1986). Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 626-633.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Thelen, J. N. (1986). Vocabulary Instruction and Meaningful Learning. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 603-609.

閱讀理解和詞彙能力有什麼關係?

增加閱讀理解,就能夠幫助詞彙的增加(Beck,Perfetti & McKeown, 1982; Kameenui,Carnine & Freschi, 1982; Stahl, 1983),這樣子的說法經Davis (1944) 分析了許多因素之間的關係後,也發現這閱讀理解和詞彙增加確實存在互相彼此影響的關係。

在第一語言詞彙成長的討論中,其中心都是伴隨著閱讀理解的關係(Hague, 1987)。Hague (1987)曾把第一語言詞彙成長的五種解釋放在第二語言學習的脈絡下討論:這五個解釋分別是性向(aptitude hypothesis)、知識(knowledge hypothesis)、工具性(instrumentalist hypothesis)、讀取(access hypothesis),以及融合以上四個解釋的互動(interaction, instructional design hypothesis)。

性向假說指的是一個人天生的能力,某些人自然就能夠學會較多詞彙,而有較好的閱讀能力;知識假說則認為詞彙的知識是反應了這個人一般的知識,而間接影響了他的閱讀能力;工具性假說則提直接將詞彙和閱讀能力以「相關」的形式表示(這樣的假說下,可以透過刻意去教詞彙來帶動閱讀能力的提昇);讀取假說則認為當一個詞語還沒被完全熟悉而能夠快速、輕易地讀取時,人們是不會使用這個詞,因此需要有多次的接觸和練習才能達成熟悉;在上面四種解釋互動下,Kameenui,Dixon and Carnine (1987)提出了詞彙應該如何學習的方法,其目標就是增進閱讀的理解。

References

Anders, P. L. & Bos, C. S. (1986). Semantic Feature Analysis: An Interactive Strategy for Vocabulary Development and Text Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 610-616.
Beck, I. L. & McKeown, M. G. (1985). Teaching vocabulary: Making the instruction fit the goal. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 11-15.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A. & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.. Journal of educational psychology, 74(4), 506.
Carr, E. & Wixson, K. K. (1986). Guidelines for Evaluating Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 588-595.
Davis, F. B. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197.
Deighton, L. C. (1960). Developing vocabulary: Another look at the problem. The English Journal, 49(2), 82-88.
Dunmore, D. (1989). Using Contextual Clues to Infer Word Meaning: an Evaluation of Current Exercise Types Don Dunmore. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6(1), 337.
Hague, S. A. (1987). Vocabulary instruction: What L2 can learn from L1. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 217-225.
Harvey, P. (1983). Vocabulary learning: the use of grids. ELT journal, 37(3), 243-246.
Kameenui, E. J., Carnine, D. W. & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading research quarterly, , 367-388.
Kameenui, E. J., Dixon, D. & Carnine, D. W. (1987). Issues in the design of vocabulary instruction. In (), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale, NJ.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching, 13(3-4), 221-246.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004). Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1985). Incidental vs. Instructional Approaches to Increasing Reading Vocabulary. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 16-21.
Nelson-Herber, J. (1986). Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 626-633.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Thelen, J. N. (1986). Vocabulary Instruction and Meaningful Learning. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 603-609.

學習第二語言詞彙和學習第一語言有何異同?

對於剛開始學習第二語言的學習者的詞彙學習,有兩個比較明顯的特徵:一、他們能夠聽、說、讀、寫的詞彙是幾乎一致的;二、初期的詞彙都只是將學習者既有的概念和一個新的標籤連結在一塊而已。

這樣子的特徵和學習第一語言詞彙是有很大的差別的。在第一語言的時候,聽、說、讀、寫的詞彙是有很大的差異的(Deighton, 1960);而且,學習一個新的標籤時,也同時學得一個新的概念(Mezynski, 1983)。

一開始學習第二語言的時候,我們會覺得自己進步飛快,但是當學習者要從初階閱讀到進階閱讀的時候,學習的困難就會發生了。剛開始學習第二語言的時候,學生所閱讀的是經過簡化的文本,但是當學生開始接觸未經簡化的真實文本時,接觸的單字不再由教科書所控制。也由於學習者所閱讀的文本通常是缺乏背景知識的文本,例如標的語人們的文化或風俗,於是學習者會開始認為學習第二語言不再如同一開始那樣容易。

一但過了上面的階段,學習第二語言詞彙的方式就會更接近第一語言的方式。學習者不再只是學一個已知概念的標籤,同時要學會新的概念。

References

Anders, P. L. & Bos, C. S. (1986). Semantic Feature Analysis: An Interactive Strategy for Vocabulary Development and Text Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 610-616.
Beck, I. L. & McKeown, M. G. (1985). Teaching vocabulary: Making the instruction fit the goal. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 11-15.
Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A. & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.. Journal of educational psychology, 74(4), 506.
Carr, E. & Wixson, K. K. (1986). Guidelines for Evaluating Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 588-595.
Davis, F. B. (1944). Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197.
Deighton, L. C. (1960). Developing vocabulary: Another look at the problem. The English Journal, 49(2), 82-88.
Dunmore, D. (1989). Using Contextual Clues to Infer Word Meaning: an Evaluation of Current Exercise Types Don Dunmore. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6(1), 337.
Hague, S. A. (1987). Vocabulary instruction: What L2 can learn from L1. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 217-225.
Harvey, P. (1983). Vocabulary learning: the use of grids. ELT journal, 37(3), 243-246.
Kameenui, E. J., Carnine, D. W. & Freschi, R. (1982). Effects of text construction and instructional procedures for teaching word meanings on comprehension and recall. Reading research quarterly, , 367-388.
Kameenui, E. J., Dixon, D. & Carnine, D. W. (1987). Issues in the design of vocabulary instruction. In (), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale, NJ.
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching, 13(3-4), 221-246.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004). Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A. (1985). Incidental vs. Instructional Approaches to Increasing Reading Vocabulary. Educational Perspectives, 23(1), 16-21.
Nelson-Herber, J. (1986). Expanding and Refining Vocabulary in Content Areas. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 626-633.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Thelen, J. N. (1986). Vocabulary Instruction and Meaningful Learning. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 603-609.