CLIL具體怎麼進行?一個用英語上體育課的例子。

Heras and Lasagabaster (2015)有這樣子的例子。西班牙有17個行政區,有6個是雙語區。娜瓦利(Navarre)是巴斯克和西班牙語的雙語區。在一個鄉下地方的國民中學就有機會參加不同計畫的CLIL課程。以一個不具名的國民中學為例,它可能會參加以法語學習歷史和地理的CLIL課程,同時參加以英語學習體育的CLIL課程。

以英語學習體育的CLIL課程怎麼進行呢?四年的體育課中,並非全部都以英語進行,而是每年每年調高比例:第一年有15%用英語、第二年30%、第三年50%,第四年66%。兩個英語系的老師和一個負責體育課程的CLIL老師每週見面一次以協調課程。英語老師必須把課程內容翻譯。課程內容在前兩次上課是由英語老師進行,如此學習可以在正式的體育課之前得到相關的詞語。以 娜瓦利的攀岩課程為例,12小時的課程中,有10個小時教學(包含1個小時由英語老師所進行的教學),2個小時評量。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

性別在語言學習動機上的差異,是否會因為CLIL而減少?

在外語學習的研究中,性別一直是很重要的變項。在對於外語學習的策略上、動機上、抗拒程度上,男生女生都存在差異。

然而,有不少在CLIL下的學習者,是許多因為性別有差異的地方都比非CLIL的差異更小。Lasagabaster (2008) 認為是在同時學習語言和科目的學習環境下,男生的學習者被驅動了學習動機。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

動機和第二語言習得在不同時期的文獻告訴我們什麼?

Dörnyei and Ushioda (2009)回顧文獻,將第二語言習得在動機的文獻上分為三個階段:社會心理期(1959-90)、認知環境期(1990s)和社會動態期(21世紀的轉向)。
在社會心理期,研究主要來自加拿大。加拿大因為語言的關係,使人們分為英語圈和法語圈的分化,因此這時候的研究旨在了解對於學習另外一個族群語言的動機是不是能夠消彌不同社群的歧見。當學習者比較正面地看得另一個社群,且有想和另一個社群溝通的慾望,那就有較好的學習。這是有一點兒融合的意味(integrative orientation或integrativeness)。

1990年代開始,認知心理學加入,而且研究也往加拿大以外的地方進行。這轉向開始關注和課堂學習的動機,學習的環境包括課程、老師和同儕。

社會動態期則關注自我認同和動機的關係。Dörnyei (2009)的「第二語言動機性自我系統」(L2 Motivational Self System)不只是在個人的第二語言而進一步要使動機能夠在全球化下的不同語言學習環境。「第二語言動機性自我系統」將認知、情緒和脈絡因素通通整合在一起。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

研究動機和第二語言習得,可以用什麼框架進行?

動機在第二語言習得的文獻中,一直有許多討論。有很長一段時間,文獻認為動機是一個穩定且線性的關係;但是,近二十年來,也開始有比較動態的觀點。主要是因為,這些關於動機和第二語言習得的研究都是在不一樣的脈絡下進行,這使得動機對於語言學習有不一樣的關係(Masgoret & Gardner, 2003) 。另外,之所以有許多學習者對於第二語言學習的動機減弱,除了教學方法之外,學習者的心理變化,例如拒絕整個學校系統也可能是原因。CLIL有沒有辦法使動機改變呢?

Seikkula-Leino (2007)的研究發現雖然學習者在CLIL的課程下比較有動機去學習,但是他們對於自己的外語能力和非CLIL的同學相比,卻比較沒有自信。Dörnyei (2009)曾經提出「第二語言動機性自我系統」(L2 Motivational Self System)用以探索學習者認同和學習環境。Heras and Lasagabaster (2015)亦使用此框架研究學習者在CLIL的課程下的自我認同。

第二語言動機性自我系統包含三個組成:理想的第二語言自我(Ideal L2 self)、理應的第二語言自我(Ought-to L2 self)以及第二語言學習經驗(L2 Learning Experience)。理想的第二語言自我是所有人們在第二語言中想擁有的特質,如果學習者想成為會學二語的人,這個就會是一個強大的動機去使真實的自我和理想的自我之間的鴻溝逐漸縮小。而理應的第二語言自我則是那些被認為應該要有擁有,但是要避免負面結果的特質,這並不是個人的慾望或希望。這比較多的是外在誘引,而不是內在驅動的工具性動機。第二語言學習經驗則和學習環境有關,例如老師、課程、同儕或成功經驗。

References

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In (), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E.D{“o}rnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (Eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36). Multilingual Matters.
Heras, A. & Lasagabaster, D. (2015). The impact of CLIL on affective factors and vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 70-88.
Lasagabaster, D. (2008). Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), .
Masgoret, A.-M. & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: a meta–analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language learning, 53(1), 123-163.
Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21(4), 328-341.

學詞彙是不是有最好的策略?

Sanaoui (1995)的質化研究中觀察在英屬哥倫比亞學習法語作為二語的學習者,其認為學習者的語言程度和教學方式並不會影響詞彙的學習,真正影響個人詞彙學習是其是否有結構(structured/ unstructured)。

另外,也有研究表明教師是可以訓練學習者注重詞彙學習(Schmitt & Schmitt, 1993; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999; Fan, 2003) 。

詞彙學習的策略並不是去認識一個詞。每一個詞彙學習策略都有它的優點。那些成功學習詞彙的人不只有多樣的學習策略,而且是持之以恆地去使用。

References

Fan, M. Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. The Modern Language Journal, 87(2), 222-241.
Folse, K. (2002). One Japanese ESL learner’s use of context clues to complete an assignment. Unpublished manuscript, , .
Folse, K. S. (1999). The effect of type of written practice activity on second language vocabulary retention (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from
Folse, K. S. (2004). Myths about teaching and learning second language vocabulary: What recent research says. TESL reporter, 37(2), 1-13.
Folse, K. S. & Briggs, S. J. (2007). Vocabulary Myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 216.
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In (), Vocabulary and applied linguistics. Springer.
Kojic-Sabo, I. & Lightbown, P. M. (1999). Students’ approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 176-192.
Paribakht, T. S. & Wesche, M. (1996). Enhancing Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading: A Hierarchy of Text-Related Exercise Types.. Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 155-78.
Sanaoui, R. (1995). Adult learners’ approaches to learning vocabulary in second languages. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 15-28.
Schatz, E. K. & Baldwin, R. S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, , 439-453.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. R. (1993). Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary Learning Strategies.. Thai TESOL Bulletin, 5(4), 27-33.

二語學習者能否像母語者一樣,從脈絡猜出詞語的意思?

對於母語者而言,脈絡中有一個不認識的詞語而其它都是認識的詞語是常見的狀況;而二語學習者則可能是在一個段落裡頭就有無數的個不認識的詞語。當段落中有多個不認識的詞語時,就很容易迷路或誤導 (Folse, 2002; Folse & Briggs, 2007)。即是母語者在脈絡下去猜測新詞的詞義,也不見得能夠受益於脈絡(Schatz & Baldwin, 1986)。(Folse, 2004)認為要求二語學習者去從脈絡中猜出新詞的詞義是沒有道理的。

第一語言和第二語言的學習過程是不一樣的。在學習第一語言的時候,大多數的詞語我們並未刻意地去學習,通常會在不同脈絡下接觸到詞語;但是第二語言沒有這樣反覆接觸的機會,人們只有很短的時間就必須達到相當的程度。

在強調溝通或自然的學習方式下,語法、拼字、詞彙、老師的動作或糾錯,都會被認為是比較不適合的過程。好像變魔術一樣,詞彙可以在沒有刻意或系統地學習下就能成長。似乎只要「理解」了,就不必注意不認識的詞了!

但是,二語學習者不可避免的就是有很多詞語必須根據脈絡去猜。這使得詞彙量較少的學習者就會處在劣勢,Folse (1999) 發現當學習者知道的詞語越多去,也就更容易從脈絡中去猜出詞義。

Hulstijn (1992)的研究結論,雖然比起直接給於學習者詞義,由學習者自己推論詞義的方式,比較能夠使詞語的形和義連結起來,但是當學習者沒有任何線索而必須自己去推論詞義時錯誤的理解就常常發生。

Paribakht and Wesche (1996)比較只有閱讀和有閱讀伴隨著指導的兩種詞彙學習,雖然單純閱讀也有學習發生的可能,但是伴隨著指導的學習有更顯著的且深入的詞彙知識。

References

Fan, M. Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. The Modern Language Journal, 87(2), 222-241.
Folse, K. (2002). One Japanese ESL learner’s use of context clues to complete an assignment. Unpublished manuscript, , .
Folse, K. S. (1999). The effect of type of written practice activity on second language vocabulary retention (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from
Folse, K. S. (2004). Myths about teaching and learning second language vocabulary: What recent research says. TESL reporter, 37(2), 1-13.
Folse, K. S. & Briggs, S. J. (2007). Vocabulary Myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 216.
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In (), Vocabulary and applied linguistics. Springer.
Kojic-Sabo, I. & Lightbown, P. M. (1999). Students’ approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 176-192.
Paribakht, T. S. & Wesche, M. (1996). Enhancing Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading: A Hierarchy of Text-Related Exercise Types.. Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 155-78.
Sanaoui, R. (1995). Adult learners’ approaches to learning vocabulary in second languages. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 15-28.
Schatz, E. K. & Baldwin, R. S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, , 439-453.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. R. (1993). Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary Learning Strategies.. Thai TESOL Bulletin, 5(4), 27-33.

學習第二語言的時候,使用翻譯真的不好嗎?

有許多的實證研究都證明第一語言的翻譯在第二語言學習有其價值。

Hulstijn,Hollander and Greidanus (1996)比較閱讀文章旁邊用學生的一語和二語的注釋(marginal gloss),結果發現以學生的一語比較容易幫助學習,Laufer and Shmueli (1997)也呼應這樣的結果;Lotto and De Groot (1998) 則比較以第一語言和圖片作為示意的情況,結果發現以學生的一語比圖片的呈現,學生對於新詞記得更久(retention);Grace (1998)則發現英語母語者學法語的時候,學習者認為在能夠有一語的情況下,比較容易確認正確的意思;Prince (1996)發現,透過一語翻譯的情況對於程度較差的學習者而言,比較容易能夠去回想(recall)起新詞。

這並不是說學習二語一定要依靠第一語言翻譯,第一語言之所以有價值,在於其能夠讓學習者將新知識和舊知識連結在一起,去激發已經穩固的詞彙網絡。學習新詞的時候,之所以要激發先前的知識的因為它以經是個連結綿密的資訊網,一但新的詞彙能夠整合到這個資訊網裡頭,只要有一點點連結,學習者就容易喚回詞彙。許多研究都支持這樣子的說法(Stahl, 1983; Stoller & Grabe, 1993; Martin,Martin & Ying, 2002; Schmitt and Schmitt (1995) 。

References

Grace, C. A. (1998). Retention of Word Meanings Inferred from Context and Sentence-Level Translations: Implications for the Design of Beginning-Level CALL Software. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 533-544.
Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M. & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The modern language journal, 80(3), 327-339.
Laufer, B. & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it?. RELC journal, 28(1), 89-108.
Lotto, L. & De Groot, A. (1998). Effects of learning method and word type on acquiring vocabulary in an unfamiliar language. Language learning, 48(1), 31-69.
Martin, M. A., Martin, S. H. & Ying, W. (2002). The Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy in the ESL Classroom. TESOL Journal, 11(2), 34-35.
Olsen, S. (1999). Errors and compensatory strategies: A study of grammar and vocabulary in texts written by Norwegian learners of English. System, 27(2), 191-205.
Prince, P. (1996). Second language vocabulary learning: The role of context versus translations as a function of proficiency. The modern language journal, 80(4), 478-493.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. (1995). Vocabulary notebooks: Theoretical underpinnings and practical suggestions. ELT journal, 49(2), 133-143.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Tinkham, T. (1993). The effect of semantic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. System, 21(3), 371-380.
Tinkham, T. (1997). The effects of semantic and thematic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. Second language research, 13(2), 138-163.
Waring, R. (1997). The negative effects of learning words in semantic sets: A replication. System, 25(2), 261-274.

呈現新詞的時候,應該以語義組合還是主題組合?

大多數的課程或教材在呈現詞彙的時候,會以語義組合呈現,例如:家庭成員、動物或星期,比較少課程會以一個主題來包含新詞。關於以主題組合的例子可以見這個網頁

語言教師呈現詞彙的時候,以語義組合或主題組合來呈現比較好呢?Tinkham (1993)發現,當學習者以語義組合來學習新詞的時候會比較困難。Waring (1997)則發現日語母語者學習英語二語時,學習相關的詞彙組合,比起學習完全不相關的詞彙組合,前者比後者需要多花一半的時間。而Tinkham (1997)則發現語義組合對於學習有負面影響,而主題組合能夠促進學習。Olsen (1999)則發現挪威的英語二語學習者容易被語音相似而混淆,例如sea和see或want和won’t。

References

Grace, C. A. (1998). Retention of Word Meanings Inferred from Context and Sentence-Level Translations: Implications for the Design of Beginning-Level CALL Software. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 533-544.
Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M. & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The modern language journal, 80(3), 327-339.
Laufer, B. & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it?. RELC journal, 28(1), 89-108.
Lotto, L. & De Groot, A. (1998). Effects of learning method and word type on acquiring vocabulary in an unfamiliar language. Language learning, 48(1), 31-69.
Martin, M. A., Martin, S. H. & Ying, W. (2002). The Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy in the ESL Classroom. TESOL Journal, 11(2), 34-35.
Olsen, S. (1999). Errors and compensatory strategies: A study of grammar and vocabulary in texts written by Norwegian learners of English. System, 27(2), 191-205.
Prince, P. (1996). Second language vocabulary learning: The role of context versus translations as a function of proficiency. The modern language journal, 80(4), 478-493.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. (1995). Vocabulary notebooks: Theoretical underpinnings and practical suggestions. ELT journal, 49(2), 133-143.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Tinkham, T. (1993). The effect of semantic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. System, 21(3), 371-380.
Tinkham, T. (1997). The effects of semantic and thematic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. Second language research, 13(2), 138-163.
Waring, R. (1997). The negative effects of learning words in semantic sets: A replication. System, 25(2), 261-274.

參加詞彙課程的學生對於詞彙學習方法的態度有什麼樣的改變?

大多數語言研究者和教師對於詞彙的關注較少,因為在封閉的系統下,例如:句法和語音,人們是比較容易進行歸納和演繹(Richards, 1976; Laufer, 1986)。但是,比較大學二語學習者的偏誤比例時,卻發現詞彙的偏誤高於語法的3倍到4倍(Meara, 1984)。學習者的詞彙能力和其學術成就有很大相關,特別影響閱讀的表現(Laufer, 1986; Qian, 2002)。Paribakht and Wesche (1996)指出,在以理解為基礎的上所進行的課程,即能夠對學習者的詞彙能力有大大的提升。

Zimmerman (1997)發現只要在課程中進行詞彙相關的活動,學習者對於詞彙學習方法的態度隨之改變。學習者參加10週的課程,每週上課24-25小時,而且進行自選閱讀材料並記錄。實驗組的學生除了每週24-25的正規課程外,還有額外3個小時的詞彙學習課程。

詞彙學習課程的活動相當多樣。例如:詞彙「consume」會進行課堂討論:「Under what circumstances and by whom would each of the following be consumed: three glasses of water, 6 gallons of beer, a ton of fish, a tree, oil, a book, a town」。或者,讓學生去描述圖表,同時要求學生使用相關詞語:consume/1990, consumption/1930/exceeded, consumers/after World War II, continued to consume/in 1965, consuming/ since 1950。再來,可能透過口頭或書面的方式,讓學生表達「What three foods do you think are the most commonly eaten through the world?」

在10週的課程過後,不論有沒有參加詞彙課程的學生都在清單考試(Checklist,由學習者對目標詞語進行四個程度的評估:一、我不知道這個詞;二、我看過這個詞,但是我不知道它的意思;三、在句子中,我知道他的意思,但是我不知道怎麼使用這個詞;四、我可以將這個詞使用在句子中)上都有進步。此外,一個由學生為六種詞語學習方法排序的問卷也在10週課程前後進行。課程前,兩組學習者都認為課堂上的詞彙活動很重要,課程後只有參加詞彙課程的學生同樣認為重要,但是只有自選閱讀材料的學生則認為閱讀比詞彙課程更重要。

課堂上的詞彙活動會影響學習者對於詞彙學習方法的感受。

References

Laufer, B. (1986). Possible changes in attitude towards vocabulary acquisition research. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 24(1), 69.
Meara, P. (1984). The study of lexis in interlanguage. In A. Davies, C. Criper & A. P. R. Howatt (Eds.), Interlanguage. Edinburgh University Press.
Paribakht, T. S. & Wesche, M. (1996). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale for Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading performance: An assessment perspective. Language learning, 52(3), 513-536.
Richards, J. C. (1976). The role of vocabulary teaching. TESOL quarterly, , 77-89.
Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? An empirical study. Tesol Quarterly, 31(1), 121-140.

CLIL是如何增加詞彙知識?

在Xanthou (2010) 回顧過往的研究中,其認為使詞彙知識能夠逐步增加的幾個要點:一、激發先前的知識;二、在脈絡下學習;三、對詞彙進行主動地加工、處理;四、多次、反覆的接觸。

在介紹新的概念的時候,通常我們需要把它和學生既有的知識連結,這就會激發學習者先前的知識。由於CLIL由內容將所有詞彙串連在一起,因此CLIL可以從這個方面對詞彙學習有幫助。

當學科的內容在CLIL下執行的時候,新詞就是被放在脈絡下被呈現。CLIL提供一個以內容為基礎的語言環境,脈絡就是學習者將目標詞彙應用的場閾。

CLIL能夠提供學習者主動去運用新詞的機會,這可以是課堂的討論,也可以是內容相關或語言相關的活動。由於新詞是在使用的脈絡下被運動,學習就更容易發生。

CLIL會針對單一主題進行足夠的教學,因此透過澄清、說明的過程新詞就會反覆地出現在課堂。Robinson (2005) 觀察學科的課堂上(CLIL),使老師使用新詞的次數,僅僅2分鐘內,就使用了17次的「 friction」。而Xanthou (2010) 在地理課的觀察中也發現,對於「tropical」在2分鐘內,也出現在了7次。

CLIL看起來是能夠增進詞彙知識增加的學習方式。

Xanthou (2010) 比較了三個組別(CLIL:以英語作為二語學習地理、非CLIL:以希臘語(母語)學習地理、詞彙清單:一般的英語課程),比較了參與課程(5次上課,每次40分鐘)前後、和組間的對於100個地理相關的內容詞彙翻譯(英語翻譯成希臘語)。課程前,三個組別的分數是沒有差異,但是課程後三個組別之間的分數就產生差異了。後測進步最大的CLIL組,而詞彙清單組在後測的分數還退步,非CLIL組的也是退步。對於詞彙的學習,在CLIL的成效確實優於非CLIL和詞彙清單。

References

Coady, J. (1996). L2 vocabulary acquistion: A synthesis of the research. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale for Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Martin, M. A., Martin, S. H. & Ying, W. (2002). The Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy in the ESL Classroom. TESOL Journal, 11(2), 34-35.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension. Review of educational research, 53(2), 253-279.
Nation, I. (2013). Learning words from context. In (), Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I. S. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Heinle ELT.
Robinson, P. J. (2005). Teaching key vocabulary in geography and science classrooms: An analysis of teachers’ practice with particular reference to EAL pupils’ learning. Language and Education, 19(5), 428-445.
Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in language teaching. Cambridge University PRess.
Schmitt, N. & Schmitt, D. (1995). Vocabulary notebooks: Theoretical underpinnings and practical suggestions. ELT journal, 49(2), 133-143.
Stahl, S. (1983). Differential word knowledge and reading comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(4), 33-50.
Stoller, F. & Grabe, W. (1993). Implications for L2 vocabulary acquisition and instruction from L1 vocabulary research. In (), Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning. Ablex.
Xanthou, M. (2010). Current trends in L2 vocabulary learning and instruction: Is CLIL the right approach. Advances in Research on Language Acquisition and Teaching: Selected Papers, Thessaloniki, Greece: Greek Applied Linguistics Association (GALA), , 459-471.